"This report argues for the aim of outlawing all weapons of mass destruction. It concentrates on what could and should be short- and medium-term steps in this direction. The Commission takes the view that, while many unilateral, bilateral and regional steps and measures are needed and helpful, the abhorrence of the peoples of all nations of weapons of mass destruction requires an approach that builds on the cooperation and support of the entire world community. Regimes that invite and encourage the adherence of all states must be established and managed on a global scale. Treaties and international organizations, notably the United Nations, are indispensable tools and forums."

"In April 2005, RANSAC [Russian American Nuclear Security Advisory Council] and LNCV [Landau Network-Centro Volta] held a meeting titled Advancing International Cooperation on Bio-Initiatives in Russia and the CIS in Rome, Italy. The participants included government officials and academic experts from key Western countries, and biological scientists and biosecurity experts from Russia, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan. The event was the second in a series of meetings on how to further cooperation between these governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to prevent biological terrorism by promoting biosecurity, biosafety, and the involvement of commercial entities in key biological institutes. The event provided for the discussion of a broad range of topics from a spectrum of specialists. The following is a digest of the findings from the RANSAC and LNCV organizers of the meeting and the conference proceedings."

"GAO has done many studies over the past 7 years on anthrax vaccine safety and anthrax detection methods. GAO has reported the lack of validated methods for detecting anthrax contamination and has recommended a coordinated approach to improving the overall process for detecting anthrax that included a probability-based sampling strategy. GAO also reported that the vaccine has not been adequately tested on humans; no studies have been done to determine the optimum number of doses; the long-term safety has not been studied and data on short-term reactions are limited; however, women report higher rates of reactions than do men. Given these problems, GAO recommended the development, of a better, alternative vaccine. The Secretary of Homeland Security needs to develop a formal strategic plan, including a roadmap, outlining how individual agency efforts would lead to the validation of the overall sampling process."

"An integral part of the development of new vaccines and therapeutics is obtaining the necessary approvals from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration both for their initial use in people and their eventual licensure for general use. The present accelerated pace of development, however, has led to several additional needs: standardization of methods for the generation and characterization of aerosols of bioterrorism agents for use in animal studies (necessary for licensure of vaccines and therapeutics), characterization of the threat to the population, and expansion of the number of laboratories conducting the research. The Committee on Animal Models for Testing Interventions Against Aerosolized Bioterrorism Agents was convened by the National Research Council to address these issues. It was tasked by its sponsor, the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, to prepare a short consensus report that articulates the difficulties of testing countermeasures to aerosolized bioterrorism agents and considers whether there are opportunities for improving current approaches to animal testing of countermeasures against aerosols by applying knowledge from other fields of science."

"The possibility that an adversary may use chemical or biological weapons against U.S. forces makes it important for a weapon system to be able to survive such attacks. In the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2005, Congress mandated that the Department of Defense submit a plan to address weapon system chemical and biological survivability by February 28, 2005. This plan was to include developing a centralized database with information about the effects of chemical and biological agents on materials used in weapon systems. DOD did not submit its plan as mandated. GAO was asked to evaluate (1) the extent to which DOD addresses weapon system chemical and biological survivability during the acquisition process, and (2) DODs internal controls for maintaining a comprehensive database that includes chemical and biological survivability research and test data for weapon system design and development."

"This Instruction: implements security policy and assigns responsibilities under [DoD Directive 5210.88, "Safeguarding Biological Select Agents and Toxins"]; establishes minimum standards for securing and safeguarding biological select agents and toxins (BSAT) in the custody or possession of the Department of Defense; establishes the criteria for personnel regarding BSAT, including requirements for the Biological Personnel Reliability Program (BPRP); permits BSAT to be used for bona fide research and other peaceful purposes and ensures the security of BSAT from attack, theft, wrongful use, and inappropriate transfer to unauthorized personnel, organizations, and/or laboratories; directs responsible personnel and agencies to ensure secure access and control of applicable BSAT and to establish minimum physical security measures; establishes requirements for initial and periodic security reviews, threat and vulnerability assessments, and inspections."

"This directive establishes the Air Force Biological Security Program and outlines policy to ensure the Air Force safeguards biological select agents and toxins in the manner prescribed by higher Department of Defense (DoD) guidance and the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). This directive applies to all facilities under Air Force command (to include Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve Command facilities) using, possessing, transferring, or receiving biological select agents or toxins, as well as Air Force contracted facilities furnished DoD-supplied biological select agents or toxins. Compliance with this directive is mandatory for all applicable Air Force military, civilian, and contractor personnel."

"The present report contains recommendations for a global counter-terrorism strategy, with an emphasis on specific proposals for strengthening the capacity of the United Nations to combat terrorism. In formulating these recommendations, [Kofi Annan has] been assisted by the Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force, which [Annan] created in 2005 to bring together key actors in the United Nations system and its partners dealing with counter-terrorism issues." According to the report, "the most important under-addressed threat relating to terrorism, and one which acutely requires new thinking on the part of the international community, is that of terrorists using a biological weapon."

"Some of the same scientific and technological advances that provide great benefits to society can also be used maliciously. For example, biological research on the origins of virulence, the development of vaccines, and the genetic manipulation of biological agents are simultaneously relevant to public health and to biological weapons. Some policymakers are concerned that publishing such dual-use research results in the open literature could aid or further the goals of adversaries of the United States. The National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity (NSABB) was established to facilitate understanding and oversight of such potentially contentious research. Issues of potential congressional interest include the mechanism and appropriateness of NSABB review of scientific research; the scope of NSABB recommendations with respect to publication of scientific research; the domestic and international adoption of practices or codes developed by the NSABB; the implementation of NSABB guidelines at the local level; and applicability of NSABB recommendations to federal agencies other than HHS."

"This report traces the evolution of SBU [sensitive but unclassified]-related controls; summarizes actions taken to protect certain types of scientific and technical information; describes critiques of some control policies; and summarizes proposals and actions, including congressional, executive and other initiatives, to clarify these issues and develop policies that serve various stakeholders. It also raises issues that may warrant further attention."

"This report indicates the sweep of science and technology in many public policy issues, although it cannot provide a comprehensive examination of every science or technology issue which may be of interest to Congress. In some areas, such as global climate change and stem cell research, the importance of science and technology is explicit and in the forefront of the policy debate. In others, such as patent protection and telecommunications reform, science and technology may not be as explicit, but are important drivers affecting how policy makers may make decisions. This report also addresses key issues that directly affect, or are affected by, science and technology. Other mechanisms which may indirectly impact science and technology - such as tax, antitrust, and trade policies - are outside the scope of this report."

"Rather than a formal risk assessment the Committee has proposed, instead, a conceptual framework for how to think about the nature of the future threat landscape. Indeed, as the world becomes more competent and sophisticated in the biological sciences, it is vitally important that the national security, public health and biomedical science communities have the necessary knowledge and tools to address the present and future applications of advances in the life sciences."

"The livestock industry, which contributes over $100 billion annually to the national economy, is vulnerable to foreign animal diseases that, if introduced in the United States, could cause severe economic losses. To protect against such losses, critical research and diagnostic activities are conducted at the Plum Island Animal Disease Center in New York. The Department of Agriculture (USDA) was responsible for Plum Island until June 2003, when provisions of the Homeland Security Act of 2002 transferred the facility to the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Under an interagency agreement, USDA continues to work on foreign animal diseases at the island. GAO examined (1) DHS and USDA coordination of research and diagnostic activities, (2) changes in research and diagnostic priorities since the transfer, and (3) long-term objectives of joint activities at Plum Island."

"This report offers a listing and brief description of legal provisions that require or authorize the imposition of some form of economic sanction against countries, companies, or persons who violate U.S. nonproliferation norms. For each provision, information is included on what triggers the imposition of sanctions, their duration, what authority the President has to delay or abstain from imposing sanctions, and what authority the President has to waive the imposition of sanctions. This report also includes a list of legislation pending before the 109th Congress that, if enacted, would be relevant in the use of economic sanctions as a part of U.S. nonproliferation policy."

"The report offered a number of recommendations that could help restore Russia's ability to join with the United States and the broader international community in leading an expanded global effort to control infectious diseases. A proposed bilateral intergovernmental commission could play a pivotal role toward that end as cooperation moves from assistance to partnership. The report proposed the establishment of two model State Sanitary Epidemiological Surveillance Centers in Russia, more focused support of competitively selected Russian research groups as centers of excellence, the promotion of investments in biotechnology niches that are well suited for Russian companies, and expanded opportunities for young scientists to achieve scientific leadership positions in Russia. Also, the report highlighted the importance of U.S. programs that support the integration of former Soviet defense scientists with civilian researchers who had not been involved in military-related activities."

"Many potential biological terrorism agents lack available countermeasures. President Bush proposed Project BioShield to address this need. The 108th Congress considered this proposal in S. 15 (Gregg), S. 1504 (Gregg), and H.R. 2122 (Tauzin). President Bush signed S. 15 into law on July 21, 2004 (The Project BioShield Act of 2004, P.L. 108-276). The main provisions of this law include (1) relaxing procedures for bioterrorism-related procurement, hiring, and awarding research grants; (2) guaranteeing a federal government market for new biomedical countermeasures; and (3) permitting emergency use of unapproved countermeasures. Project BioShield countermeasure procurement is funded by the Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Act, 2004 (P.L. 108-90) which advance-appropriated $5.593 billion for FY2004-FY2013. Additional measures to encourage the development of countermeasures are being considered by the 109th Congress in S. 3 (Gregg) and S. 975 (Lieberman)."

"In 2004, the NIAID recognized a need to further refine information about current BSL-3 laboratory capacity in the US. In partnership with American Society of Microbiologist (ASM), NIAID conducted a survey of academic, biotechnology, and pharmaceutical facilities in the US to help better identify the location, capacity and status of existing and operating US laboratory facilities that incorporate Biosafety Level 3 (BSL-3) containment. BSL-3 containment is applicable to clinical, diagnostic, teaching, research or production facilities in which work is done with indigenous or exotic agents that may cause serious or potentially lethal disease as a result of exposure by the inhalation route."

"As part of its study, the committee held a workshop at the Instituto Nacional de Salud Publica (National Institute of Public Health) in Cuernavaca, Mexico, in September 2004. The purpose of the workshop was to sample global perspectives on the current advancing technology landscape. Experts from different fields and from around the world presented their diverse outlooks on: advancing technologies and forces that drive technological progress; local and regional capabilities for life sciences research, development, and application (both beneficial and malevolent); national perceptions and awareness of the risks associated with advancing technologies; and measures that have been taken, or could or should be taken, to reduce the potential for misapplication of technology(ies) or malevolent purposes. This report summarizes the formal and informal discussions held at the workshop."

"Patents appear to be important in the promotion of innovation, particularly in the pharmaceutical sector. This report explores the role of patents in encouraging the development and commercialization of new inventions and discusses the relationships between patent ownership and the generation of biomedical products. However, the grant of a patent on a pharmaceutical does not permit marketing of the product without the approval of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Thus, this report also examines policies concerning the use of FDA marketing exclusivity as an additional incentive to industry research and development (R&D) in this arena. Current law and suggested legislative changes are discussed to provide a context for further exploration of the related issues."

"Oversight of federal research and development in biodefense is an area of international interest, as only defensive research activities are allowed under the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention. Congressional oversight of programs, especially those performed in federal facilities for homeland security purposes, is considered key to maintaining transparency in biodefense. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) play leading roles protecting civilians against biological weapons. The Department of Homeland Security has requested and received appropriated funding for the construction of the National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), a biodefense facility dedicated to homeland security activities. This facility, the first DHS laboratory focused on biodefense, has drawn the attention of Congress, arms control experts, and others. This report will outline the organizational structure of NBACC, describe its mission, and report the funding DHS has received for construction of its facility. It will then discuss policy issues such as funding for NBACC facility construction, oversight of NBACC research, and the potential for duplication of federal effort between NBACC and other agencies."

"In September and October 2001, letters laced with Bacillus anthracis (anthrax) spores were sent through the mail to two U.S. senators and to members of the media. These letters led to the first U.S. cases of anthrax disease related to bioterrorism. In all, 22 individuals, in four states and Washington, D.C., contracted anthrax disease; 5 died. These cases prompted the Subcommittee [on National Security, Emerging Threats, and International Relations in the House of Representatives] to ask GAO to describe and assess federal agencies' activities to detect anthrax in postal facilities, assess the results of agencies' testing, and assess whether agencies' detection."

"This report presents the results of an Office of the Inspector General (OIG) inspection of the Security Risk Assessment (SRA) program that the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) established under the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002 (Bioterrorism Act), Pub. Law No. 107-188. The OIG initiated the inspection in response to concerns about a backlog at the FBI of pending SRA applications submitted by researchers seeking access to dangerous biological agents and toxins controlled under the Bioterrorism Act. The objectives of our inspection were to: determine whether the FBI had a backlog of pending SRA applications and, if so, why; and identify any program vulnerabilities that needed to be corrected. We initiated our review on September 20, 2004, and analyzed productivity data through January 10, 2005."

"Since 1992, the Congress has provided more than $7 billion for threat reduction and nonproliferation programs in the former Soviet Union (FSU). These programs have played a key role in addressing the threats of weapons of mass destruction and are currently expanding beyond the FSU. The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2004 mandated that GAO assess (1) Department of Defense (DOD) and Department of Energy (DOE) strategies guiding their threat reduction and nonproliferation programs and (2) efforts to coordinate DOD, DOE, and Department of State threat reduction and nonproliferation programs that share similar missions."

"Within the last 30 years, the genomes of thousands of organisms, from viruses, to bacteria, to humans, have been sequenced or partially sequenced and deposited in databases freely accessible to scientists around the world. This information is accelerating scientists' ability to fight disease and make other medical advances, but policymakers must consider the possibility that the information could also be used for destructive purposes in acts of bioterrorism or war. Based in part on views from working biological scientists, the report concludes that current policies that allow scientists and the public unrestricted access to genome data on microbial pathogens should not be changed. Because access improves our ability to fight both bioterrorism and naturally occurring infectious diseases, security against bioterrorism is better served by policies that facilitate, not limit, the free flow of this information."

"Of increasing importance are [threats] from chemical and biological warfare (CW and BW). To help review its current state of preparedness, the Chief of Naval Operations asked the National Research Council (NRC) to assess the U.S. Navy's defense capabilities against CW and BW threats. In particular to what extent are they being developed to enable naval forces to sense and analyze quickly the presence of chemical and biological agents, withstand or avoid exposure to such agents, deal with contamination under a broad spectrum of operational conditions, and over what period will these capabilities be realized. This report presents the results of that assessment. It provides an overview of the potential threats, and an evaluation of the Navy's operations, non-medical programs, and medical countermeasures designed to confront those threats. The report also presents a series of general and specific findings and recommendations based on these assessments."

"Significant progress also has been made since the January 2003 release of the NIAID Biodefense Research Agenda for Category B and C Priority Pathogens; these scientific advances and programmatic activities are described in this new progress report. Specific topics include: progress made towards meeting general recommendations in the areas of research, product development, and research resources, which are crucial for building a robust biodefense infrastructure; and scientific advances and research activities related to the immediate goals in the research agenda. In keeping with these goals, this progress report focuses on basic and applied research aimed at developing pathogen-specific diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccines, as well as progress in understanding the biology of Category B and C microbes and the host response to them. The report also summarizes scientific progress in the area of immune-based strategies for biodefense."

"Immediately following the 2001 terrorist attacks and the subsequent anthrax release, the Office of Inspector General (OIG) initiated a program to review select agent1 security at laboratories operated by the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and universities. In early 2002, we began reviews of 11 universities that received National Institutes of Health (NIH) funding for research involving select agents. Of these, 10 had select agents on the premises, and 1 planned to obtain such agents. We used the following laws, regulations, and guidance as criteria for evaluating the adequacy of security measures at the universities we reviewed: Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL), 4th Edition, Appendix F; the select agent transfer regulation (42 CFR 72.6); the Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001 (USA PATRIOT Act); and Office of Management and Budget Circular A-130, Appendix III, 'Security of Federal Automated Information Resources.' The purpose of this report is to summarize our findings and discuss the universities' responses, regulatory changes affecting select agents, and actions taken by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and NIH to address the issues raised by our reviews."

"In recent years much has happened to justify an examination of biological research in light of national security concerns. The destructive application of biotechnology research includes activities such as spreading common pathogens or transforming them into even more lethal forms. Policymakers and the scientific community at large must put forth a vigorous and immediate response to this challenge. This new book by the National Research Council recommends that the government expand existing regulations and rely on self-governance by scientists rather than adopt intrusive new policies. One key recommendation of the report is that the government should not attempt to regulate scientific publishing but should trust scientists and journals to screen their papers for security risks, a task some journals have already taken up. With biological information and tools widely distributed, regulating only U.S. researchers would have little effect. A new International Forum on Biosecurity should encourage the adoption of similar measures around the world. Seven types of risky studies would require approval by the Institutional Biosafety Committees that already oversee recombinant DNA research at some 400 U.S. institutions. These experiments of concern include making an infectious agent more lethal and rendering vaccines powerless."

"Pursuant to [the Directive-Type Memorandum "Safeguarding Biological Select Agents"], this Directive establishes security policy and assigns responsibilities for safeguarding biological select agents and toxins."

"According to a new congressionally mandated report from the Institute of Medicine and National Research Council of the National Academies, to successfully develop these drugs, vaccines, and other medical interventions against biowarfare agents, Congress should authorize the creation of a new agency within the Office of the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Defense. The committee recommended that Congress should improve liability protections for those who develop and manufacture these products, to stimulate willingness to invest in new research and development for biowarfare protection. Giving Full Measure to Countermeasures also identifies other challenges such as the need for appropriate animal models and laboratories equipped with high-level biosafety protections that will require attention if DoD efforts to develop new medical countermeasures are to be successful."

"In addition to increasing the breadth and depth of biodefense research, NIAID has made significant progress in meeting the specific goals and recommendations of the [2002] Blue Ribbon Panel [on Bioterrorism and Its Implications for Biomedical Research]. This progress report describes the progress that has been made toward addressing the immediate goals outlined in the research agenda. The first section of this report reviews progress on meeting the general recommendations made by the panel that apply to all areas of NIAID biodefense research. Research goals specific to each of the Category A pathogens are covered in individual chapters. Finally, the progress made thus far on immunology as it relates to biodefense is described in a separate chapter." This report updates the recommendations and assesses progress in research and development since the February 2002 NIAID Biodefense Research Agenda for CDC Category A Agents.

"The Panel's recommendations focus on protecting citizen health through the creation of a comprehensive national readiness strategy, helping first responders, helping businesses protect our nation and improving the technology of personal identification. Importantly, the actions proposed emphasize helping citizens help themselves. We also offer suggestions on cyberterrorism and other matters involving threat detection, assessment and response. In each instance we attempt to acknowledge the activities that already exist in the private sector (citizen and corporate), and to suggest the appropriate governmental tools that could be applied to achieve the desired objectives in the particular situation addressed. As already noted, in a number of instances the Panel's recommendations are intended to confirm, augment or refocus efforts that are currently under way or under consideration."

"Many potential biological terrorism agents lack available countermeasures. President Bush proposed Project BioShield to encourage companies to develop new bioterror countermeasures. The main provisions of that proposal include: (1) relaxing procedures for bioterrorism-related procurement and peer review; (2) guaranteeing a market through contract authority granted to the Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS) to buy countermeasures following Presidential approval, funded by a permanent, indefinite appropriation; and (3) allowing the Secretary of HHS to permit the emergency use of unapproved countermeasures. Some critics suggest that biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies will require even more incentives than contained in these proposals."

"This report presents recent examples of scientific research results whose publication raised concern regarding the threat they potentially pose to national security. Past and current information control mechanisms are discussed, along with current federal policy concerning dissemination of fundamental research results through the open literature. Recent policy actions regarding dissemination of federal information and federally funded research results are outlined, along with the responses these actions have evoked from various professional societies and publishers. The advantages and disadvantages to potential policy actions addressing classification and other controls over open publication of federally funded research results are also described."

"The October 2001 anthrax attacks, the recent outbreak of the virulent Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), and increased awareness that terrorist groups may be capable of releasing lifethreatening biological agents have prompted efforts to improve our nation's preparedness for, and response to, public health emergencies-including bioterrorism. GAO was asked, among other things, to identify federal agencies' information technology (IT) initiatives to support our nation's readiness to deal with bioterrorism. Specifically, we compiled an inventory of such activities, determined the range of these coordination activities with other agencies, and identified the use of health care standards in these efforts."

"The efforts of state and local public health agencies to prepare for a bioterrorist attack have improved the nation's capacity to respond to infectious disease outbreaks and other major public health threats, but gaps in preparedness remain. GAO found workforce shortages and gaps in disease surveillance and laboratory facilities. The level of preparedness varied across cities GAO visited. Jurisdictions that have had multiple prior experiences with public health emergencies were generally more prepared than others. GAO found that regional planning was generally lacking between states but that states were developing their own plans for receiving and distributing medical supplies for emergencies, as well as plans for mass vaccinations in the event of a public health emergency."

"The purpose of this paper is to review three processes that are providing the context in which biological weapons issues are evolving...The first is the destruction in 2001 by the United States of any possibility of achieving a negotiated Verification Protocol to the Biological Weapon Convention...The second is the emphasis on the threat of bioterrorism that became a significant national political concern in the United States since the second half of 1995, but which has been enormously magnified by the September 2001 events, as well as the subsequent distribution of expertly prepared powdered anthrax through the US postal system...The second of these, the frequently exaggerated anticipation of 'bioterrorism,' produced the third process: an enormous expansion in the U.S. biodefense program, the consequences of which risk catalyzing a major expansion in both global interest and capabilities in the area of biological weapons and warfare."

"There is widespread belief that the likelihood of terrorist use of chemical and biological weapons (CBW) is increasing, in part as a result of publicized new evidence of terrorist interest and capabilities, as well as the political fall-out from the war in Iraq. This is a serious present concern that deserves examination in the broader framework provided by the patterns, motivations and historical context for the current terrorist threat. Although it can have a powerful psychological impact, past CBW use by terrorists has been rare and has not caused a large number of casualties...Terrorist attacks are deliberately designed to surprise, so no trend analysis will ever perfectly predict them, especially in the contemporary international climate. This report presents the arguments for and against future nonstate terrorist acquisition and/or use of CBW weapons against the United States, as well as a brief discussion of issues for Congress concerning how best to counter the threat."

"Terrorists and countries of concern may be able to gain access to poorly secured weapons of mass destruction at sites throughout Russia. To address this threat to U.S. national security, the Departments of Defense (DOD) and Energy (DOE) have obligated more than $1.8 billion since 1992. GAO was asked to report on U.S. programs to help improve security at sites where Russia stores (1) weapons-usable nuclear material, (2) nuclear warheads, (3) dangerous biological pathogens, and (4) chemical weapons. For each area, GAO assessed U.S. plans to address security threats at sites in Russia, U.S. progress in implementing those plans, and the primary challenges facing DOD and DOE."

"The NIAID Biodefense Research Agenda for Category B and C Priority Pathogens builds on the Strategic Plan and provides recommendations relevant to the Category B and C priority pathogens. As with the two previous research agendas, this document focuses on the need for basic research on the biology of the microbe, the host response, and basic and applied research aimed at the development of diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccines against these agents. In addition, the Agenda addresses the research resources, facilities, and scientific manpower needed to conduct both basic and applied research on these agents."

"Biotechnology is revolutionizing the way new drugs are discovered, from a substantially empirical art to a rational, predictive process in which targets of drugs are selected on the basis of known physiology, then ligands that can bind to these targets are designed. The same process could be used to identify promising new chemical weapons (CW) agents, which would be synthesized from unscheduled precursors. Biotechnology thus has the potential of fueling CW proliferation. It can also aid the development of novel nonlethal chemical agents, the development of which could have a number of negative consequences for CW control."

Countering Agricultural Bioterrorism asseses the vulnerability of US agriculture to intentional threats and provides recommendations needed to strengthen and adapt the US system for defense against biological threats to agriculture.

"People and organizations all across the United States have taken many steps to improve our security since the September 11 attacks, but a great deal of work remains. The National Strategy for Homeland Security will help to prepare our Nation for the work ahead in several ways. It provides direction to the federal government departments and agencies that have a role in homeland security. It suggests steps that state and local governments, private companies and organizations, and individual Americans can take to improve our security and offers incentives for them to do so. It recommends certain actions to the Congress."

"Vulnerabilities abound in U.S. society. The openness and efficiency of our key infrastructures...make them susceptible to terrorist attacks. Making the Nation Safer discusses technical approaches to mitigating these vulnerabilities. A broad range of topics are covered in this book, including...bioterrorism, medical research, agricultural systems, and public health...There are recommendations on how to immediately apply existing knowledge and technology to make the nation safer and on starting research and development programs that could produce innovations that will strengthen key systems and protect us against future threats. The book also discusses issues affecting the government's ability to carry out the necessary science and engineering programs and the important role of industry, universities, and states, counties, and cities in homeland security efforts."

"This report was published as Chapter 3 of the National Academies' report, Making the Nation: The Role of Science and Technology in Countering Terrorism. It is published here as a stand-alone report to focus on measures to counter bioterrorism.

This report is organized into three chapters: (1) intelligence, surveillance, detection, and diagnosis; (2) prevention, response, and recovery; and (3) policy and implementation followed by concluding remarks. Each chapter describes the desired capabilities that could soon exist through better application of existing science and technology (and that might therefore have a near-term payoff) as well as desired capabilities that cannot now be provided through existing science and technology (S&T) but might be available in the future, given longer-term research and possibly more innovative funding and organizational approaches. The report focuses on research needs related to both human and agricultural health...The report concludes with recommendations about education and information dissemination, strengthening the public health and agriculture infrastructures, and organizing the research and development effort through improved policies, new funding models, and publicprivate partnerships."

"In the wake of September 11^th and recent anthrax events, our nation's bioterrorism response capability has become an imminent priority for policymakers, researchers, public health officials, academia, and the private sector. In a three-day workshop, convened by the Institute of Medicine's Forum on Emerging Infections, experts from each of these communities came together to identify, clarify, and prioritize the next steps that need to be taken in order to prepare and strengthen bioterrorism response capabilities...It became clear that of utmost urgency is the need to cast the issue of a response in an appropriate framework in order to attract the attention of Congress and the public in order to garner sufficient and sustainable support for such initiatives...Numerous workshop participants agreed that there are many gaps in the public health infrastructure and countermeasure capabilities that must be prioritized and addressed in order to assure a rapid and effective response to another bioterrorist attack."

"The Institute has developed a Strategic Plan for Biodefense Research at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), which outlines plans for addressing research needs in the broad area of bioterrorism and emerging and reemerging infectious diseases. (See Appendix B.) This Biodefense Research Agenda supplements the strategic plan and articulates the goals for research on anthrax, smallpox, plague, botulism, tularemia, and viral hemorrhagic fevers. The research agenda focuses on the need for basic research on the biology of the microbe, the host response, and basic and applied research aimed at the development of diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccines against these agents. In addition, the agenda addresses the research resources, facilities, and scientific manpower needed to conduct both basic and applied research on these agents."

"NIAID is committed to an agenda of basic and translational research for bioterrorism defense, working with partners in academia, industry, and other private and public-sector agencies. NIAID has developed this Strategic Plan to guide the implementation of the necessary research and development program. It is important to emphasize that the Strategic Plan focuses on both basic research and the application of that basic research to predetermined goals, including the development of products such as diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccines. In the traditional manner, NIAID will provide support for the pursuit of fundamental research questions concerning microbes and the specific and nonspecific host defense mechanisms against these microbes. In addition, the Institute will work with partners in the private and public sectors to ensure that the fruits of basic research are rapidly translated into products that can be used in the worldwide Biodefense and emerging infection effort. Finally, NIAID also will collaborate with other agencies and organizations on research related to other forms of terrorism where scientific overlap and mutual opportunity exist for scientific or public health gain."

This paper details the history of biological weapons, associated programs, and control efforts by state and non-state actors throughout the 20^th Century. Information is also provided on events of the 1990s that have influenced the national and international perspectives of biological weapons.

"Anti-agricultural biowarfare and bioterrorism differ significantly from the same activities directed against humans; for instance, there exist a variety of possibilities for economic gain for perpetrators, and the list of possible perpetrators includes corporations, which may have state-of-the-art technical expertise. Furthermore, attacks are substantially easier to do: the agents arent hazardous to humans, delivery systems are readily available and unsophisticated, maximum effect may only require a few cases, delivery from outside the target country is possible, and an effective attack can be constructed to appear natural. This constellation of characteristics makes biological attack on the agricultural sector of at least some countries a very real threat, perhaps more so than attack on the civilian population."

"The story of the Aum [Shinrikyo] and biological weapons (BW) is that of a religious-based fringe cult, one that would not ordinarily have been considered a "terrorist" group, but whose megalomanic leader included in his program of action the development of nerve gases and biological weapons. The group reportedly had available to it extraordinary financial resources, in the tens and hundreds of millions of dollars, some of which it converted into the procurement of equipment and facilities for work on these agents. Their efforts in the biological weapons area took several directions, but despite semi-professional capabilities, substantial time and effort, all of these efforts failed."

"This paper evaluates the threat of biological weapons use against the United States in the near term. It does this by surveying, successively: the proliferation of biological weapons (BW) in identified state programs; the historical record regarding the potential for state-supported terrorism with biological weapons; the experience of the use of biological agents by non-state groups, either identified as "terrorist" organizations, or by any other designation; and the requirements and parameters for non-state groups to produce biological agents capable of being used as weapons systems."

"This publication describes the combinations of standard and special microbiological practices, safety equipment, and facilities constituting Biosafety Levels 1-4, which are recommended for work with a variety of infectious agents in various laboratory settings."

"Bombings at the World Trade Center and Oklahoma City's Federal Building, as well as nerve gas attacks in Japan, have made it tragically obvious that American civilians must be ready for terrorist attacks. What do we need to know to help emergency and medical personnel prepare for these attacks? Chemical and Biological Terrorism identifies the R&D efforts needed to implement recommendations in key areas: pre-incident intelligence, detection and identification of chemical and biological agents, protective clothing and equipment, early recognition that a population has been covertly exposed to a pathogen, mass casualty decontamination and triage, use of vaccines and pharmaceuticals, and the psychological effects of terror. Specific objectives for computer software development are also identified. The book addresses the differences between a biological and chemical attack, the distinct challenges to the military and civilian medical communities, and other broader issues"

"This manual provides a comprehensive guide to the surveillance and control of anthrax in humans and animals...Information is intended for use by any veterinary or public health service confronted with an epidemic, an isolated case, or questions ranging from the duration of quarantine to the safety of milk. While noting the effectiveness of vaccines and other preventive measures, the manual gives particular attention to the complexities of controlling a disease spread by remarkably hardy spores that survive environmental extremes and many chemical disinfectants, and can travel great distances in the meat, hides, hair, wool or bones of infected animals...Throughout, an effort is made to balance recommended best practices with the realities of resource-poor settings where anthrax poses the greatest threat to human and animal health." Summary from WHO Press.

"The Militarily Critical Technologies List (MCTL), is a detailed and structured compendium of the technologies the Department of Defense (DoD) assesses as critical to maintaining superior United States military capabilities. The MCTL is used as a technical foundation for U.S. proposals for export control in the New Forum, Missile Technology Control Regime, Nuclear Suppliers Groups, Australia Group, and other nonproliferation regimes. The MCTL is used as a reference for evaluating potential technology transfers and technical reports and scientific papers for public release. The information is used to determine if the proposed transaction would result in transfer that would permit potential adversaries access to technologies, not whether a transfer should or should not be approved.

Part II: Weapons of Mass Destruction Technologies addresses those technologies required for development, integration, or employment of biological, chemical, or nuclear weapons and their means of delivery. This document is not oriented to U.S. capabilities. Rather, it addresses technologies that proliferators might use to develop WMD. It provides technical information to assist various entities of the DoD to develop, support, and execute counterproliferation initiatives."

"These technical guidelines are part of a series created by the World Health Organization's Division of Emerging and Other Communicable Diseases (EMC) as part of the Epidemic Preparedness and Response program. Their purpose is to update current knowledge on diseases with epidemic potential, to help health officials detect and control outbreaks, and, with the present document, to strengthen the capacity for emergency response to an epidemic of EHF."

"The purpose of this handbook is to provide a guide for medical officers on the medical aspects of NBC [nuclear, biological, chemical] operations. The handbook is intended as a compilation of reference material and as a source of information for training."

"This background paper explores the technical pathways by which states might acquire nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons and the systems to deliver them. It also assesses the level of effort, commitment, and resources required to mount such developments. The paper is a companion to the OTA report Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Assessing the Risks, which describes what nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons can do and how they might be used. That report also analyzes the consequences of the spread of such weapons for the United States and the world, surveys the array of policy tools that can be used to combat proliferation, and identifies tradeoffs and choices that confront policymakers."

"The Panel on Scientific Communication and National Security was asked to examine the various aspects of the application of controls to scientific communication and to suggest how to balance competing national objectives so as to best serve the general welfare. This task has involved a careful assessment of the sources of leakage, the nature of universities and scientific communication, the current systems of information control, and the several costs and benefits of controls. These assessments underlie the Panel's recommendations."

The Department of Defense Chemical and Biological Defense Program (CBDP) prepares these reports yearly in accordance to 50 US Code 1522 and 1523. The Annual Reports assess the Armed Forces' readiness to engage in a chemical biological warfare environment, the steps taken to improve that readiness, and the CBDPs requirements, in terms of training, detection, protection, and treatment. The Performance Plans allows the CBDP to assess their projects' effectiveness and contributions to their goals and mission and are a tool for the oversight and management of the program.